Chapter 5 Land Resources And Agriculture

Land is a fundamental resource utilized by humans for various purposes, including production (like agriculture), residence, and recreation. Observing the area around us reveals diverse land uses – rivers, forests, roads, buildings, parks, fields, and pastures all represent different ways land is used.

Different types of land are inherently suited for different activities, influencing how humans choose to use this resource.

Land Use Categories

Official records regarding how land is used are maintained by the land revenue department in India. These records categorize land based on its usage, and the total area covered by these categories is referred to as the reporting area.

The reporting area is distinct from the geographical area, which is the total physical area of administrative units measured by the Survey of India. While the geographical area remains fixed, the reporting area can change slightly based on variations in land revenue records and reporting methods over time.

The primary land-use categories maintained in the Land Revenue Records are:

• Forests: This category represents the area officially classified or demarcated by the government for forest growth. It's important to note that this figure may not always correspond exactly to the area with actual forest cover on the ground. An increase in this recorded category does not necessarily mean an increase in the actual extent of trees.
• Barren and Wastelands: Land that is considered unsuitable for cultivation using current available technology. This includes terrain like barren hills, deserts, and ravines.
• Land put to Non-agricultural Uses: Land occupied by human settlements (both rural and urban), infrastructure (roads, railways, canals), industries, shops, and other non-agricultural purposes. Growth in the secondary (manufacturing) and tertiary (services) sectors of the economy typically leads to an increase in this land-use category as infrastructure and urban areas expand.
• Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands: Land designated for grazing livestock. Most of this land is collectively owned by village 'Panchayats' or the government and is considered 'Common Property Resources' (CPRs). A small portion may be privately owned.
• Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves (Not included in Net sown Area): Land used for orchards and fruit tree cultivation. This land is largely privately owned and not part of the annually sown area.
• Culturable Wasteland: Land that has been left uncultivated or fallow for a period exceeding five years. This land has the potential to be brought back under cultivation if appropriate reclamation measures are undertaken.
• Current Fallow: Land left uncultivated for a short period, specifically for one agricultural year or less. Fallowing is a traditional practice where land is rested to allow natural processes to restore its fertility.
• Fallow other than Current Fallow: Cultivable land that has been left without cultivation for a period longer than one year but less than five years. If left uncultivated for five years or more, it would be reclassified as culturable wasteland.
• Net Area Sown: This is the actual physical area of land on which crops are planted and harvested within an agricultural year. It represents the land actively used for cultivation.

Note: The total physical area of land used for growing crops in a year, including areas sown more than once, is called Gross Cropped Area (GCA). Net Area Sown (NSA) refers only to the unique physical area. Gross Cropped Area = Net Area Sown + Area sown more than once.

Land-Use Changes In India

Land use patterns in a region are heavily influenced by the dominant economic activities. Since land area is fixed, changes in economic activities over time necessarily lead to shifts in how land is utilized.

Three main types of economic changes affect land use:

• Growth in Economy Size: As an economy grows (due to population increase, rising incomes, technological advancements), the overall demand and pressure on land resources increase. This often leads to previously marginal lands being brought into use for various purposes.
• Change in Economic Composition: Developing economies typically see faster growth in the secondary (manufacturing) and tertiary (services) sectors compared to the primary sector (agriculture). This results in a gradual shift of land from agricultural uses to non-agricultural uses, particularly noticeable around urban areas where agricultural land is converted for buildings and infrastructure.
• Persistent Pressure on Agricultural Land: Even as agriculture's contribution to GDP decreases over time, the pressure on land for agricultural production often remains high in developing countries. This is because:
  • The decline in the proportion of the population dependent on agriculture is usually slower than the decline in the sector's share of GDP.
  • The absolute number of people who need to be fed by agricultural production continues to grow with increasing population.

India's economy has undergone significant structural changes over the past 50-60 years, reflected in its land-use patterns between 1950-51 and 2014-15 (based on reporting area percentages):

Between these periods, four categories showed an increase in their share of the reporting area, while four showed a decline:

Categories with Increase:

• Area under non-agricultural uses: Experienced the highest rate of increase. This is directly linked to the growth of the industrial and services sectors, expansion of infrastructure, and the physical growth of urban and rural settlements. This expansion often occurs at the expense of wastelands and agricultural land.
• Area under forest: The reported increase is mainly due to the expansion of the officially demarcated area classified as forest by the government, rather than necessarily an equivalent increase in actual forest cover.
• Current fallow lands: The share of current fallow fluctuates annually based on factors like rainfall variability and cropping practices. Information from just two time points doesn't fully explain the trend over decades.
• Net area sown: Showed a recent increase, partly by utilizing culturable wasteland. Prior to this, it had been slowly decreasing, primarily due to the diversion of agricultural land for non-agricultural purposes (building, infrastructure).

Categories with Decline:

• Barren and wasteland & Culturable wasteland: These categories have decreased over time, likely due to increasing pressure on land resources from both agricultural and non-agricultural demands, leading to reclamation efforts.
• Area under permanent pastures and tree crops: The decline in grazing lands is often due to the encroachment by agricultural activities as cultivation expands onto common pasture areas.
• Fallow lands (other than current fallow): Land left fallow for more than one but less than five years has also decreased, possibly due to increased pressure to cultivate land more frequently.

Common Property Resources

Based on ownership, land can be classified as either private land (owned by individuals or groups) or Common Property Resources (CPRs).

CPRs are lands owned by the state or community, intended for use by the community as a whole.

CPRs are vital for providing resources like fodder for livestock, fuel for households, and minor forest products such as fruits and medicinal plants.

These resources are particularly important for the livelihoods of landless villagers, marginal farmers, and economically weaker sections, who often depend on income from livestock and have limited access to private land.

CPRs also play a significant role for women in rural areas, who often bear the responsibility for collecting fuel and fodder, a task that becomes more time-consuming if CPR areas are degraded.

CPRs are characterized by the right of community members to access and use them, along with specified obligations, without individual property rights over the land itself. Examples include community forests, village pasture lands, public water bodies, and other public spaces used and managed collectively by a group larger than a single household.

Agricultural Land Use In India

Land is a particularly crucial resource for people whose livelihood depends on agriculture for several reasons:

• Land-Based Activity: Agriculture is uniquely dependent on land as the primary factor of production, unlike secondary or tertiary activities. Therefore, limited access to land is directly linked to poverty in rural areas.
• Quality Impact: The productivity of agriculture is directly influenced by the quality of the land, which is not as critical a factor for other economic activities.
• Social and Economic Value: In rural areas, land ownership provides not only economic value as a productive asset but also social status and serves as a form of security against risks like crop failure or other life emergencies.

The total potentially cultivable land available in India can be estimated by adding the Net Area Sown, all categories of fallow lands (current fallow, fallow other than current fallow), and culturable wasteland.

Analysis indicates a slight decline in the total cultivable land area as a percentage of the reporting area over the years (from 59.5% in 1950-51 to 58.0% in 2014-15).

Within this total cultivable land, the share of Net Area Sown has increased (from 70% to 78.4%), while the share of culturable wasteland and fallow lands has declined.

This shows that the potential for significantly increasing the Net Area Sown by bringing more land under cultivation is limited.

Therefore, there is an urgent need for India to adopt land-saving technologies. These technologies aim to either:

• Increase the yield (output per unit area) of individual crops.
• Increase the total output per unit area per year by increasing the intensity of land use (growing multiple crops in a year).

Increasing land-use intensity (like double or triple cropping) is particularly beneficial for a country like India, which is relatively short on land but has abundant labour. This approach not only boosts output from limited land but also increases demand for agricultural labour, helping to reduce rural unemployment.

Cropping Intensity (CI) is calculated as:

$ \text{Cropping Intensity (percentage)} = \frac{\text{Gross Cropped Area}}{\text{Net Sown Area}} \times 100 $

Cropping Seasons In India

India has distinct cropping seasons that vary between the northern and southern parts of the country, primarily influenced by monsoon rainfall patterns and temperature variations.

In northern and interior India, there are three main cropping seasons:

• Kharif Season:
  • Largely coincides with the Southwest Monsoon (June to September).
  • Crops grown are typically tropical crops that require significant water.
  • Major crops: Rice, Cotton, Jute, Jowar, Bajra, Tur (Arhar), Maize.
• Rabi Season:
  • Begins with the onset of winter (October-November) and ends in March-April.
  • Crops grown are temperate or subtropical crops suited to cooler conditions.
  • Major crops: Wheat, Gram, Rapeseed and Mustard, Barley.
• Zaid Season:
  • A short summer cropping season following the Rabi harvest (April-June).
  • Cultivation typically occurs on irrigated land.
  • Major crops: Watermelons, Cucumbers, Vegetables, Fodder crops.

In the southern parts of India, the temperature remains high throughout the year, allowing tropical crops to be grown in any season, provided there is sufficient soil moisture (through rain or irrigation). Therefore, the clear distinction between Kharif and Rabi seasons is less pronounced, and some crops can potentially be grown multiple times a year.

Types Of Farming

Based on the primary source of moisture for crops, farming in India can be classified as irrigated farming and rainfed (barani) farming.

Irrigated Farming: Relies on artificial water supply (irrigation). It differs based on the objective of irrigation:

• Protective Irrigation: Aims to protect crops from drought or soil moisture deficiency, acting as a supplementary water source to rainfall. The goal is to provide minimal moisture to as large an area as possible to prevent crop failure.
• Productive Irrigation: Aims to provide sufficient water to maximize crop productivity and yield. This involves higher water application per unit area compared to protective irrigation.

Rainfed (Barani) Farming: Depends solely on rainfall for soil moisture. It is further classified based on the adequacy of rainfall during the cropping season:

• Dryland Farming: Practised in regions receiving less than 75 cm of annual rainfall. These areas typically grow hardy, drought-resistant crops (e.g., ragi, bajra, moong, gram, guar) and utilize soil moisture conservation and rainwater harvesting techniques.
• Wetland Farming: Practised in regions where rainfall exceeds the plants' moisture requirements during the rainy season. These areas may face risks of floods and soil erosion. They cultivate water-intensive crops (e.g., rice, jute, sugarcane) and may also engage in aquaculture in freshwater bodies.

Foodgrains

Foodgrains are crops cultivated primarily for human consumption as staple foods. They hold immense importance in the Indian agricultural economy.

Approximately two-thirds of the total cropped area in India is dedicated to foodgrain cultivation.

Foodgrains are the dominant crops across most parts of the country, regardless of whether the agricultural system is subsistence-based or commercial.

Foodgrains are broadly classified into cereals and pulses based on their grain structure and nutritional value.

Cereals:

Cereals cover about 54% of India's total cropped area. India is a significant producer of cereals globally, ranking third after China and the U.S.A., contributing about 11% of world cereal production.

Indian cereals are often classified as fine grains (like rice and wheat) and coarse grains (like jowar, bajra, maize, ragi).

Rice

Rice is the most important staple food for the majority of Indians. While traditionally a crop of tropical humid regions, numerous varieties allow it to be grown in diverse agro-climatic conditions, from sea level to high altitudes and in both humid eastern regions and irrigated dry areas in the northwest (Punjab, Haryana, western U.P., northern Rajasthan).

In southern states and West Bengal, favorable climatic conditions permit growing two or three crops of rice annually (e.g., 'aus', 'aman', and 'boro' in West Bengal). In the Himalayas and northwestern India, it is primarily a Kharif crop grown during the monsoon season.

India is the world's second-largest rice producer after China, contributing 21.6% of global production (2016).

About one-fourth of India's total cropped area is under rice cultivation. Leading states in rice production are West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab.

Rice yields are notably high in Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh (undivided), Telangana, West Bengal, and Kerala. In Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh, high yields are linked to almost complete irrigation coverage.

Rice cultivation was introduced to the irrigated areas of Punjab and Haryana during the Green Revolution in the 1970s. High yields in this non-traditional area are attributed to the use of high-yielding varieties (HYVs), significant use of fertilizers and pesticides, and the dry climate which reduces susceptibility to pests.

In rainfed areas like Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha, rice yields remain very low.

Wheat

Wheat is the second most crucial cereal crop in India after rice. India accounts for about 12.3% of global wheat production (2016) and is primarily a crop of the temperate zone.

In India, wheat is grown during the winter or Rabi season. About 85% of the area under wheat cultivation is concentrated in the north and central regions, including the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Malwa Plateau, and Himalayan regions up to 2,700m altitude.

Being a Rabi crop, it is mostly grown under irrigated conditions. However, it is a rainfed crop in higher Himalayan areas and parts of the Malwa plateau (Madhya Pradesh).

Wheat is cultivated on about 14% of India's total cropped area. Major producing states include Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.

Yields are very high in Punjab and Haryana (above 4,000 kg/ha), while Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Bihar have moderate yields. States growing wheat under rainfed conditions (Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir) have low yields.

Jowar

Jowar (Sorghum) is a coarse cereal. Coarse cereals collectively cover about 16.5% of the total cropped area.

Jowar specifically occupies about 5.3% of the cropped area and is a main food crop in the semi-arid regions of central and southern India.

Maharashtra is the largest producer, accounting for over half of India's jowar production. Other significant states are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh (undivided), and Telangana.

Jowar is grown in both Kharif and Rabi seasons in southern states but is mainly a Kharif fodder crop in northern India.

South of the Vindhya mountains, it is primarily a rainfed crop with low yields.

Bajra

Bajra is another coarse cereal suited to hot and dry climates in northwestern and western India. It is a hardy crop that can withstand frequent dry spells and drought.

It is grown alone or as part of mixed cropping systems and covers about 5.2% of the cropped area.

Leading producer states are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Haryana.

As a largely rainfed crop, yields are low in Rajasthan and fluctuate annually. Yields have improved in Haryana and Gujarat due to drought-resistant varieties and irrigation expansion.

Maize

Maize is a versatile crop used for both food and fodder, grown in semi-arid conditions and on varying soil types. It occupies about 3.6% of the cropped area.

Maize cultivation is widespread across India, except in Punjab and the eastern/northeastern regions.

Major producing states include Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh (undivided), Telangana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.

Maize yields are generally higher than other coarse cereals, being higher in southern states and decreasing towards central India.

Pulses

Pulses are crucial components of vegetarian diets, serving as rich sources of protein. These are legume crops that help improve soil fertility through nitrogen fixation.

India is a leading global producer of pulses. Pulse cultivation is concentrated in the dryland regions of the Deccan and central plateaus and northwestern India.

Pulses occupy about 11% of the total cropped area. Being mostly rainfed crops in dry areas, pulse yields are generally low and fluctuate significantly from year to year.

The main pulses cultivated in India are Gram and Tur (Arhar).

Gram

Gram is a subtropical pulse crop primarily grown as a rainfed Rabi crop in central, western, and northwestern India. It requires minimal rainfall or irrigation.

Following the Green Revolution, wheat largely replaced gram in cropping patterns in irrigated areas of Haryana, Punjab, and northern Rajasthan.

Currently, gram is grown on about 2.8% of the cropped area. Main producers include Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh (undivided), Telangana, and Rajasthan.

Yields remain low and variable, even in irrigated areas.

Tur (Arhar)

Tur, also known as red gram or pigeon pea, is the second most important pulse crop in India. It is grown on marginal lands under rainfed conditions in the dry areas of central and southern states.

Tur occupies about 2% of the total cropped area. Maharashtra is the largest producer, contributing about one-third of the total output. Other leading states include Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.

Like gram, tur yields per hectare are very low and inconsistent.

Oilseeds

Oilseeds are crops cultivated for extracting edible oils. Major oilseed growing regions in India include the drylands of the Malwa plateau, Marathwada, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana, Rayalseema (Andhra Pradesh), and the Karnataka plateau.

Oilseeds collectively occupy about 14% of the total cropped area.

Key oilseed crops in India are Groundnut, Rapeseed and Mustard, Soyabean, and Sunflower.

Groundnut

India is a significant global producer of groundnut, contributing about 16.6% of the world's production in 2016.

Groundnut is primarily a rainfed Kharif crop of drylands. However, in southern India, it is also grown during the Rabi season.

It covers about 3.6% of the total cropped area. Leading producers are Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh (undivided), Karnataka, and Maharashtra.

Yields are relatively high in Tamil Nadu (partly irrigated) but low in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh (undivided), and Karnataka.

Rapeseed And Mustard

This category includes various oilseeds like rai, sarson, toria, and taramira. These are subtropical crops cultivated during the Rabi season in northwestern and central India.

They are sensitive to frost, leading to fluctuating yields. However, yields have become somewhat more stable with irrigation expansion and improved seed technology.

About two-thirds of the area under these crops is irrigated. They occupy about 2.5% of the total cropped area.

Rajasthan is the largest producer (about one-third), with Haryana and Madhya Pradesh also being leading states. Yields are comparatively high in Haryana and Rajasthan.

Other Oilseeds

Soyabean and Sunflower are other important oilseed crops.

Soyabean: Mostly grown in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, which together produce about 90% of India's soyabean output.

Sunflower: Cultivation is concentrated in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh (undivided), Telangana, and parts of Maharashtra. It is a minor crop in northern India, where irrigation leads to higher yields.

Fibre Crops

Fibre crops are grown to obtain natural fibres used for making textiles, bags, sacks, and other products. Cotton and Jute are the two main fibre crops in India.

Cotton

Cotton is a tropical Kharif crop grown in the semi-arid regions of India. Despite losing significant cotton-growing land to Pakistan during Partition, India's cotton acreage has increased considerably.

India produces both short-staple (Indian) and long-staple (American) cotton ('narma'). Cotton requires clear, sunny skies during the flowering stage.

India ranks second globally in cotton production after China. Cotton occupies about 4.7% of India's total cropped area.

There are three main cotton-growing belts: parts of Punjab, Haryana, and northern Rajasthan (northwest); Gujarat and Maharashtra (west); and plateaus of Andhra Pradesh (undivided), Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu (south).

Leading producers are Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Telangana.

Yield per hectare is high under irrigated conditions in the northwestern region but very low in rainfed areas like Maharashtra.

Jute

Jute fibre is used for making coarse textiles, bags (sacks), and decorative items. It is an important cash crop primarily grown in West Bengal and adjoining eastern states.

India also lost significant jute-growing areas to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) during Partition. At present, India produces about three-fifths of the world's jute.

West Bengal accounts for roughly three-fourths of India's jute production. Bihar and Assam are other jute-growing areas.

Due to its limited cultivation area, jute occupies only about 0.5% of the total cropped area in India.

Other Crops

Besides foodgrains, oilseeds, and fibre crops, other significant crops cultivated in India include Sugarcane, Tea, and Coffee.

Sugarcane

Sugarcane is a tropical crop. It is grown in sub-humid and humid climates under rainfed conditions but is largely an irrigated crop in India.

In the Indo-Gangetic plain, cultivation is concentrated in Uttar Pradesh. In western India, it is grown in Maharashtra and Gujarat. In southern India, it is cultivated in irrigated areas of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh (undivided).

India ranks second globally in sugarcane production after Brazil (2015), contributing about 19% of world production.

Sugarcane occupies about 2.4% of India's total cropped area. Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer (about two-fifths of national production).

Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh (undivided) are other leading states, where sugarcane yields are higher compared to northern India.

Tea

Tea is a plantation crop consumed as a beverage. Black tea is fermented, while green tea is unfermented. Tea leaves contain caffeine and tannin.

Originally from the hills of northern China, tea is cultivated on undulating hilly terrain with well-drained soils in humid and sub-humid tropical and subtropical regions.

Tea plantation in India began in the 1840s in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam, which remains a major area. It was later introduced in the sub-Himalayan region of West Bengal (Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, Cooch Behar) and the lower slopes of the Nilgiri and Cardamom hills in the Western Ghats.

India is a leading tea producer globally, contributing about 21.1% of total production (2016). India also ranks second in tea exports after China (2016), though its share in the international market has decreased.

Assam accounts for about 53.2% of the total area under tea and produces over half of India's tea. West Bengal and Tamil Nadu are other major producers.

Coffee

Coffee is a tropical plantation crop cultivated for its seeds, which are roasted and ground for beverage preparation. Three main varieties exist: arabica, robusta, and liberica.

India primarily grows the superior quality arabica coffee, which is highly sought after in the international market.

However, India's share in global coffee production is relatively small (about 3.7% in 2016), ranking seventh worldwide.

Coffee cultivation in India is concentrated in the highlands of the Western Ghats, specifically in Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.

Karnataka is the largest producer, accounting for over two-thirds of India's total coffee output.

Agricultural Development In India

Before Independence, Indian agriculture was largely subsistence-based and performed poorly, marked by severe droughts and famines in the early 20th century.

Partition in 1947 resulted in India losing about one-third of the irrigated land in undivided India to Pakistan, reducing the proportion of irrigated area in independent India.

After Independence, the immediate focus was on increasing foodgrain production. Initial strategies included:

• Shifting cultivated area from cash crops to food crops.
• Intensifying cropping on existing cultivated land.
• Bringing cultivable and fallow land under cultivation.

While these initial efforts boosted foodgrain production, growth stagnated in the late 1950s. To address this, programs like the Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) and Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) were launched.

Two consecutive droughts in the mid-1960s led to a food crisis and increased dependence on food imports.

This situation paved the way for the introduction of High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) of wheat (from Mexico) and rice (from the Philippines), available by the mid-1960s.

India adopted a package technology that combined HYVs with chemical fertilizers and improved farming machinery, primarily implemented in irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Gujarat.

Assured irrigation was crucial for the success of this technology.

This strategy resulted in a rapid increase in foodgrain production and is known as the Green Revolution.

The Green Revolution also stimulated the growth of related industries (agro-inputs, processing) and small-scale industries.

It significantly contributed to making India self-sufficient in foodgrain production.

However, the Green Revolution was initially concentrated only in irrigated areas, leading to regional disparities in agricultural development until the 1970s, when the technology began spreading to eastern and central India.

In the 1980s, the Planning Commission focused on rainfed agriculture and initiated agro-climatic planning (from 1988) to promote balanced regional agricultural development. Emphasis was also placed on diversifying agriculture to include dairy farming, poultry, horticulture, livestock rearing, and aquaculture.

The economic liberalization policies introduced in the 1990s also influenced the trajectory of Indian agriculture.

Growth Of Agricultural Output And Technology

Over the past 50 years, Indian agriculture has witnessed substantial growth in output and significant advancements in technology.

• Production and yield of major crops like rice and wheat have increased dramatically. Other crops like sugarcane, oilseeds, and cotton have also seen appreciable production increases.
• Expansion of irrigation has been fundamental, providing the necessary moisture base for adopting modern agricultural technologies (HYVs, fertilizers, pesticides, machinery). The net irrigated area has significantly increased.
• Modern agricultural technology has spread rapidly. Consumption of chemical fertilizers has grown by 15 times since the mid-1960s. The use of pesticides has also increased substantially due to the susceptibility of HYVs to pests and diseases.

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA):

NMSA is a government initiative aimed at making agriculture more productive, sustainable, profitable, and resilient to climate change. It promotes integrated farming systems suited to local conditions and conservation of natural resources through soil and moisture management. The government encourages organic farming through schemes like Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and Rashtriya Vikas Yojana (RKVY).

Farmer’s Portal of India:

This online platform provides farmers with access to information related to agriculture, including details on crop insurance, storage, crop types, extension services, seeds, pesticides, machinery, fertilizers, market prices, best practices, government programs, and welfare schemes. It also offers interactive maps with block-level information and downloadable resources.

Problems Of Indian Agriculture

Despite significant progress, Indian agriculture faces numerous challenges, which vary regionally due to diverse agro-ecological conditions and historical factors. However, some problems are widespread, ranging from physical limitations to systemic and institutional issues.

Dependence On Erratic Monsoon

Only about one-third of India's cultivated land is irrigated, leaving the majority dependent on monsoon rainfall, which can be erratic and unreliable.

Poor monsoons negatively impact crop production in rainfed areas and reduce water availability for canal irrigation.

Regions with low rainfall (drylands) face challenges due to insufficient and unreliable precipitation, making them vulnerable to droughts. Even high-rainfall areas can experience significant fluctuations, making them susceptible to both droughts and floods (twin menace).

Flash floods can occur even in typically dry regions.

Low Productivity

Compared to international levels, the yields of most crops in India (rice, wheat, cotton, oilseeds) are relatively low.

Due to high population pressure on limited land resources, labour productivity in Indian agriculture is also considerably lower than international standards.

Yields are particularly low in vast rainfed areas, especially drylands, which primarily cultivate coarse cereals, pulses, and oilseeds.

Constraints Of Financial Resources And Indebtedness

Modern agricultural inputs (HYV seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, machinery) are expensive. This resource-intensive approach is difficult for marginal and small farmers who have limited or no savings.

Many small farmers rely on credit from institutions or moneylenders to afford these inputs. Crop failures or low market returns can trap them in a cycle of indebtedness.

Severe indebtedness is a major concern and is often cited as a factor contributing to farmer suicides in various parts of the country.

Lack Of Land Reforms

Historically, Indian peasants were subjected to exploitation due to unequal land distribution under systems like Zamindari during the British period.

While land reforms were prioritized after Independence to address this inequity, their implementation has been largely ineffective due to a lack of strong political will and resistance from powerful landlord lobbies.

This failure has resulted in the continuation of unequal distribution of cultivable land, hindering overall agricultural development.

Small Farm Size And Fragmentation Of Landholdings

India has a very large number of marginal and small farmers. Increasing population pressure has led to the continuous subdivision of land, resulting in shrinking average farm sizes.

Furthermore, landholdings in India are often fragmented into scattered plots rather than being consolidated into single blocks.

Consolidation of landholdings has not been fully implemented or requires repeat efforts in many states as land is divided among successive generations.

These small, fragmented holdings are often uneconomic to farm efficiently, making it difficult for farmers to adopt modern practices or achieve economies of scale.

Lack Of Commercialisation

A significant portion of farmers in India still practice subsistence agriculture, producing crops primarily for their own family's consumption rather than for the market.

Small and marginal farmers often lack sufficient land resources to produce a surplus beyond their needs and focus on growing foodgrains for self-consumption.

While modernisation and commercialisation have advanced in irrigated areas, many rainfed regions lag behind in shifting towards market-oriented agriculture.

Vast Underemployment

The agricultural sector in India, particularly in unirrigated areas, suffers from extensive underemployment (also known as disguised unemployment).

Many individuals dependent on agriculture do not have work opportunities for the entire year, experiencing seasonal unemployment (ranging from 4 to 8 months).

Even during cropping seasons, agricultural operations may not be continuously labour-intensive, leaving people without full-time work.

Degradation Of Cultivable Land

Faulty irrigation practices and certain agricultural development strategies have led to the serious problem of land degradation, which reduces soil fertility and productivity.

This issue is particularly severe in irrigated areas, where problems like alkalisation (increase in alkaline salts), salinisation (increase in soluble salts), and waterlogging (soil becoming saturated with water) have affected large tracts of land.

Excessive use of chemical inputs like insecticides and pesticides has resulted in the accumulation of toxic substances in the soil.

In irrigated areas, the focus on intensive cropping has often led to the displacement of leguminous crops (which fix nitrogen naturally) and a significant reduction in the duration of fallow periods, disrupting natural fertilization processes.

Rainfed areas, especially in humid and semi-arid tropics, also experience degradation from soil erosion caused by water and wind, often exacerbated by human activities like deforestation and inappropriate farming practices.

Exercises

This section provides exercises designed to help students review and apply the concepts discussed in the chapter, covering land use categories, agricultural types, crops, development strategies, and problems in Indian agriculture.

Choose The Right Answers Of The Following From The Given Options

Multiple-choice questions testing factual recall and understanding of key terms and concepts from the chapter.

Answer The Following Questions In About 30 Words.

Short answer questions requiring brief definitions and explanations of specific terms or comparisons between related concepts.

Answer The Following Questions In About 150 Words.

Longer answer questions prompting more detailed discussions on the environmental problems affecting land resources and the important strategies for agricultural development implemented in India since Independence.